Compulsory education

Compulsory full-time education is from 6 to 15 years, followed by three years of compulsory part-time education (16–18 years). 

Germany has public and private sector education. Both institutions exist side by side and co-operate with each other. As a guarantee under the Basic Law (Grundgesetz), it is possible to establish private schools. This is combined with a guarantee of the private school as an institution. The constitutional law rules out a state monopoly on education.

As a rule, children are obliged to attend primary school in the year they turn six. All learners enter the Grundschule (primary school) which covers grades 1 to 4. In Berlin and Brandenburg, the Grundschule covers grades 1 to 6.

In the primary school stage, all learners attend mixed-ability classes.

In the secondary school system (grades 5/7 to 12/13), learners follow one of three educational pathways: Hauptschule, Realschule or Gymnasium. Each has its own leaving certificate. The qualifications either offer one course or more than one course of education.

Once learners have completed compulsory schooling – generally when they reach the age of 15 – they move into upper-secondary education. The type of school they enter depends on the qualifications and entitlements they obtained at the end of lower-secondary education. The range of courses on offer includes full-time general education and vocational schools, as well as vocational training within the duales System (dual system). The majority of the L?nder (German states) offer the following general education and vocational schools, with some forms specific to the individual L?nder:

• General education schools: Gymnasium, Schularten mit drei Bildungsg?ngen and gymnasiale Oberstufe 
• Vocational schools: Berufsschule, Berufsfachschule, Fachoberschule, Berufsoberschule, Berufliches Gymnasium.

Vocational education and training is carried out in two places of learning: at the workplace and in a Berufsschule (vocational school).

For children of school age, the child and youth welfare sector also offers before-school and after-school care options, as well as full-day school offers.

Learners with special educational needs (SEN)

Learners with SEN and/or disabilities are either taught in mainstream schools together with learners without disabilities, or in special schools (sonderp?dagogische Bildungseinrichtungen, e.g. F?rderschulen, F?rderzentren, Schulen mit sonderp?dagogischem F?rderschwerpunkt, Sonderp?dagogische Bildungs- und Beratungszentren). Based on a changed understanding of disability and the principles of participation and accessibility, mainstream schools’ responsibility for all learners, with and without disabilities, has been emphasised in recent years.

Since 2007, the proportion of learners with SEN taught in special schools has been falling, while the proportion of learners with SEN taught in mainstream schools has risen significantly.

Private education

Privately-maintained institutions exist to a greater or lesser extent in all areas of education. These include pre-primary institutions that are dedicated to child and youth welfare, schools and higher education institutions, and adult education institutions.

The Basic Law (Article 7, paragraph 4) and provisions in the constitutions of the individual L?nder guarantee the right to establish privately-maintained schools. The proportion of privately-maintained schools varies considerably from Land to Land and between the different types of school.

1948: Adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1970s: Start of the integration movement

1972: Recommendation on the organisation of special education (the key term ‘special educational needs’ refers to the fact that only specific special schools were considered to be suitable and responsible for providing schooling/support; obligation to attend the appropriate type of special school)

1973: German Education Council Recommendation ‘on the educational support of disabled young people and those at risk of disability’ (advocated for joint teaching in mainstream schools; first inclusive schools)

1994: Salamanca Statement on inclusive education

1994: ‘Recommendation on special educational support’ by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (institution-related special school requirements replaced by individual special educational needs; special educational support is no longer tied to the special school as the place of support; mainstream schools should be on an equal footing with special schools as possible places of support)

2006: United Nations Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD)

2009: Germany ratified the UNCRPD

2011: ‘Recommendations on inclusive education for children and young people with disabilities in schools’ by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (introduction of the term ‘special educational support needs’)

2015: Recommendations on ‘Teacher training for a school of diversity’ in co-operation with the German University Rectors’ Conference

Germany is a Federal Republic with 16 L?nder (states). Development in the different L?nder of Germany is diverse. Each Land has its own responsibility, including individual legislation according to the guidelines of the Basic Law system.

One core element of this status is ‘cultural sovereignty’ (Kulturhoheit) – that is, the predominant responsibility of the L?nder for education, science and culture. This means, in principle, that each Land bears responsibility for its educational and cultural policy. They should express the historical, geographical, cultural and socio-political aspects specific to their Land, and thus diversity and competition in the education system and in the field of culture.

However, the L?nder have joint responsibility for the entire federal state. This overall responsibility both entitles and obliges them to co-operate with one another and to work together with the Federal Government (See Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs).

General education 

The right of children with disabilities to education and training appropriate to their needs is stated in the Basic Law (Grundgesetz, Art. 3 – R1), in Book 9 of the Social Code (Neuntes Buch Sozialgesetzbuch – Rehabilitation und Teilhabe von Menschen mit Behinderungen) and in the L?nder constitutions (R14-29). More detailed provisions are set out in the school legislation (Schulgesetze)of the L?nder (R70, R72, R74, R76, R78, R81, R83, R85, R87-88, R90, R92, R98, R100-102).

The introduction to Article 3, paragraph 3, clause 2 of the Basic Law states: ‘No-one shall be discriminated against because of their disability’. Based on this, the Social Welfare Code 9 (SGBIX) came into force in April 2001. It summarises the legal bases of medical and vocational rehabilitation. The main focus is not just the welfare and care of people with disabilities, but autonomous participation at the social level, the elimination of obstacles and the establishment of equal opportunities. The SGBIX law focuses on rehabilitation and access and has two parts:

• Regulations for people with disabilities and people at risk of exclusion
• Special regulations to enable the participation of people with severe disabilities.

General educational development and diverse experiences in practice with regard to inclusion or non-segregation have led to all L?nder adapted their school laws based on the recommendations of May 1994 of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK). The KMK revised the recommendations in 2008 to take into account the intentions of the UNCRPD. On 18 November 2010, the KMK adopted a position paper on educational and legal aspects of its implementation. Eurydice documents the principles for the inclusive education of children and young people with disabilities in schools (The Education System in the Federal Republic of Germany – Educational Support and Guidance).

The Basic Law contains a few fundamental provisions on questions of education, culture and science: thus, for example, it guarantees the freedom of art and scholarship, research and teaching (Article 5, paragraph 3), the freedom of faith and creed (Article 4), free choice of profession and of the place of training (Article 12, paragraph 1), equality before the law (Article 3, paragraph 1) and the rights of parents (Article 6, paragraph 2). The entire school system is under the supervision of the state (Article 7, paragraph 1).

There is federal legislation on early childhood education, secondary education, the Mutual Agreement between the L?nder on the standardisation of the school system, and on tertiary education (Vom 19.01.1999 (BGBl. I 1999,3, S. 18 ff.), Bekanntmachung der Neufassung des Hochschulrahmengesetzes (HRG) zul. Ge?nd. Durch Gesetz vom 15.11.2019 (BGBl. I 2019, 40, S. 1622)).

Vocational education and training

The Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz - BBiG) contains legal provisions for vocational training. The Vocational Training Promotion Act (Berufsbildungsf?rderungsgesetz) of 1981 governs vocational training planning and statistics, as well as the terms of reference and organisation of the Federal Institute for Vocational Training (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung).

Adult education and lifelong learning

According to the Third Volume of the German Social Welfare Code (SGB III), the Office of Employment (Arbeitsagentur) is responsible for providing career guidance.

In July 2004, the Federation and the L?nder adopted a joint strategy for lifelong learning in Germany (Strategie für Lebenslanges Lernen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland). Lifelong learning includes all formal, non-formal and informal learning. The strategy develops realistic long-term prospects that build on existing educational structures, activities and experiences. They define a structured framework for lifelong learning that is flexible and open for continuous further development.

Learners with disabilities

An inter-conference Federation-L?nder working party discussed a fundamental reorganisation of the social assistance systems for children and juveniles in Germany, involving the municipal national associations and the Federal Association of the Regional Social Assistance Agencies. The discussion included a reorganisation of the German assistance system with regard to children and juveniles with disabilities. It particularly reviewed the distribution of responsibility for support for children and juveniles with intellectual disability (child and youth assistance) or intellectual and/or physical disability (social assistance). It aimed to overcome the variations in the distribution of responsibilities and combine inclusive assistance for children and juveniles with disabilities under the Social Code 8 (child and youth assistance) in a consensus between the Federation, the L?nder and the local authorities (Book 8 of the Social Code).

The Children and Youth Empowerment Act (KJSG), which came into force on 10 June 2021, introduced important regulations for inclusive child and youth welfare: 

• Uniform responsibility: The KJSG paved the way for child and youth welfare services to take overall responsibility for all children – with or without disabilities – from 2028 onwards.
• Uniform definition of disability, based on Book 9 of the Social Code (SGB IX – based on the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities).
• Since 2024, procedural guides have supported parents and children applying for benefits.
• Inclusive assistance planning: Youth welfare office processes will be adapted to take the specific needs of disabled children into account from the outset.

Within Germany, there are different ways and approaches to secure individual support if learners are in danger of school failure or being socially deprived. The KMK focused on various approaches and programmes to implement individual support strategies. 

The right of persons with disabilities to education and training appropriate to their needs is enshrined in the Basic Law (Grundgesetz, Article 3), in equality legislation, in Book 9 of the Social Code (Neuntes Buch Sozialgesetzbuch – Rehabilitation und Teilhabe von Menschen mit Behinderungen) and in the L?nder constitutions. More detailed provisions are set out in the school legislation (Schulgesetze) of the L?nder.

Different offers for education, support and development in early childhood before entering school are available for learners with disabilities. The majority of learners who receive integration support related to an institution, in accordance with Book 8 of the Social Code (Achtes Buch Sozialgesetzbuch – Kinder- und Jugendhilfe) and/or Book 9 of the Social Code or for whom SEN have been identified and who attend a day-care facility for children, will be cared for there, along with other learners without disabilities.

The development and organisation of special education in the L?nder has been standardised through several resolutions adopted by the KMK, including the ‘Recommendations on the organisation of special schools’ (Empfehlung zur Ordnung des Sonderschulwesens, Resolution of March 1972) and subsequent recommendations for various types of special education. In March 2019, alongside the recommendation ‘Inclusive education of children and young people with disabilities in schools’ (Inklusive Bildung von Kindern und Jugendlichen mit Behinderungen in Schulen), the KMK published further ‘Recommendations on school education, counselling and support for children and young people with special educational needs – Learning’ (Empfehlungen zur schulischen Bildung, Beratung und Unterstützung von Kindern und Jugendlichen im sonderp?dagogischen Schwerpunkt LERNEN).

These documents address the progression of an inclusive education system in Germany, the requirements for supplementary special educational support, and their connection to general pedagogy and lifelong learning. They consolidate previous recommendations from the KMK. The KMK guidelines apply to learners with SEN, whether support is provided in mainstream schools or special education institutions.

The political and administrative hierarchy in the Federal Republic of Germany is made up of three levels:

1. Federation, i.e. districts 
2. L?nder, i.e. municipalities with the status of districts 
3. Local authorities (Kommunen), i.e. municipalities forming part of districts. 

Responsibility for the education system in Germany is divided between the Federation and the L?nder. The Basic Law defines the scope of the Federal Government’s responsibilities in education. Unless the Basic Law awards legislative powers to the Federation, the L?nder have the right to legislate. Within the education system, this applies to the school sector, the higher education sector, adult education and continuing education. Administration of the education system in these areas is almost exclusively a matter for the L?nder.

The 16 Ministries of Education, Cultural Affairs and Science develop policy guidelines in the fields of education, science and the arts. They adopt legal provisions and administrative regulations and co-operate with the highest authorities at national and Land level. They also supervise the work of authorities under their responsibility and of subordinated bodies, institutions and foundations.

The Ministry for Social Affairs is mainly responsibility for early years education. Under the Basic Law, it is the prerogative of the Federation to enact legislation on child and youth welfare within the framework of public welfare. This also applies to provision for children in kindergarten. The early intervention phase is not part of the public school system. Children with disabilities should, as far as possible, attend kindergarten and school together with non-disabled peers.

To assist the 16 Ministries in their work, the L?nder have established their own research institutes for school, higher and lifelong education. The Ministries are headed by a Minister (a Senator in Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg) who is answerable to the parliament. The Minister is usually represented by a State Secretary (Staatssekret?r/-sekret?rin) or Director-General.

Public-sector schools are, for the most part, state/local authority schools maintained jointly by the Land and the local authorities or administrative districts. The Land bears the cost of the teaching staff, while the local authority bears the cost of other staff and materials. The local authorities or administrative districts, which are responsible for the establishment and maintenance of schools and supply them with financing, are described as Schultr?ger (school-maintaining bodies).

Each Land has its own basic legal framework on:

• early childhood education;
• primary and secondary education;
• school legislation;
• legislation on privately-maintained schools;
• teacher training;
• higher education.

Head teachers (known by various titles, including Rektor) are responsible for their school’s educational and pedagogical tasks. They are also members of the teaching staff. The Education Act and specific regulations set out the head teachers’ responsibilities and duties. Head teachers must co-operate closely with the teachers’ conference and the Schulkonferenz (school conference), in accordance with the Land’s legislation. The head teacher is bound by the school supervisory authority’s legal and administrative regulations. However, they are authorised to issue instructions to the school’s teaching and non-teaching staff within the scope of Dienstaufsicht (staff supervision) and Fachaufsicht (academic supervision).

As schools have gained greater legal autonomy, head teachers’ duties have increased – for example, due to schools’ right and/or obligation to pass, implement and evaluate Schulprogramme (school-specific programmes). To ensure teaching quality, head teachers are responsible for lesson development, staff development and organisational development. Their duties may also include staff management, planning for further training, and budget administration.

Early childhood education and care is not part of the state-organised school system in Germany but almost exclusively assigned to the child and youth welfare sector. On the federal level, within the framework of public welfare, responsibility lies with the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (BMFSFJ). On the level of the L?nder, the Ministries of Youth and Social Affairs and, in part, the Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs, are the competent authorities.

Ministries for education are responsible for all types of provision regarding teaching, assessment, curricula and support. Ministries for social affairs/health care are responsible for school assistance, medical care, therapists, etc.

Special needs education means specific support for learners with disabilities. With respect to all organisational aspects, special needs education in the Federal Republic of Germany exclusively refers to special needs within the context of disability. Within the general system of support, a combination of measures of differentiation support:

• learners experiencing problems as a result of certain disabilities and/or in need of additional educational support because of problematic situations;
• ‘learners with needs for special education or SEN relating to development’ (Schüler mit sonderp?dagogischem F?rderbedarf). 

The types of specialist provision currently in the country are:

• Special schools, special classes in mainstream schools, inclusive settings, regional support and resource centre
• Different forms of access to the mainstream school system; joint teaching
• Co-operation between special education institutions and mainstream schools
• Involvement of different therapists, e.g. speech therapists, psychologists and so on.

The aim of special educational support at mainstream schools is furthermore to promote the inclusion of learners with disabilities within mainstream education and to provide all children and young people, irrespective of their physical and intellectual capabilities, with the opportunity for closer contact and easier mutual relations.

Special educational support is provided, as a rule, during joint class lessons. The expected enrolment time may vary, according to the child’s needs, from full-time to temporary.

Learners with SEN can attend mainstream schools, provided that the schools can guarantee the required special educational assistance, practical support and the right physical environment. Specialist teachers work in special schools (Sonderschulen/F?rderschulen) and in mainstream schools that meet SEN, e.g. by providing mobile assistance, advice and co?operative instruction with another teacher in inclusive classes. Apart from a suitable external environment, this also requires:

• qualified specialist teachers;
• individualised forms of planning;
• carrying out and monitoring of the teaching process;
• co-ordinated co-operation between the teaching and specialist staff involved.

Special educational support is provided during class lessons and, if necessary, alongside lessons.

The Federal Republic of Germany’s responsibility for the education system is determined by the federal structure of the state. Administration of the education system in these areas is almost exclusively a matter for the L?nder.

Where the Federation has responsibility for education, science and research, within the Federal Government this responsibility lies primarily with the Federal Ministry of Research, Technology and Space (BMFTR). The Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (BMFSFJ) is responsible for early childhood education and care in day-care centres and in child-minding services.

Wherever necessary, consultations between the Federation and L?nder take place in the Federal Council (Bundesrat), the Joint Science Conference (GWK), the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK), the German Rector’s Conference (HRK) and the Science Council (Wissenschaftsrat). The Federal Ministry of Education, Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth is organised as one Central Directorate-General and seven further Directorates-General:

• Directorate-General G: Principle and Digitisation
• Directorate-General 1: Democracy and Engagement 
• Directorate-General 2: Family
• Directorate-General 3: Women and Equity
• Directorate-General 4: Early and School Education, Educational research 
• Directorate-General 5: Vocational Training and Lifelong Learning 
• Directorate-General 6: Intergenerational Justice, Youth, Older People.

The purview of the Federal Ministry of Education, Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth includes the Federal Institute for Vocational Training (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung). It is a major instrument for co-operation between employers, trade unions, Federation and L?nder at the national level. The Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz – BBiG) defines the Institute’s responsibilities.

The main aim of the co-operation entered into by the L?nder in 1948 with the founding of the KMK was to guarantee, by means of co-ordination, the necessary measure of shared characteristics and comparability in the Federal Republic of Germany’s education system. The KMK brings together the ministers and senators of the L?nder responsible for education and training, higher education and research, and cultural affairs. It is based on an agreement between the L?nder and deals with policy matters pertaining to education, higher education, research and culture that are of supra-regional importance, with the aim of forming a common viewpoint and a common will, as well as representing common interests. The KMK’s resolutions can be adopted unanimously, with a qualified majority or with a simple majority, depending on their content. They have the status of recommendations – with the political commitment of the competent Ministers to transform the recommendations into law, however – until they are enacted as binding legislation by the parliaments in the L?nder.

The principles of education policy in the early childhood education and care sector are laid down in the ‘Joint Framework of the L?nder for Early Education in Day-Care Centres’ (Gemeinsamer Rahmen der L?nder für die frühe Bildung in Kindertageseinrichtungen), which was adopted by the KMK and the Youth Ministers Conference (JMK). For early childhood education and care, responsibility for home-based provision lies with the BMFSFJ; at the level of the L?nder, the Ministries of Youth and Social Affairs are the competent authorities.

Co-operation between special education institutions and mainstream schools exists independently of more recent attempts at inclusive teaching. When a learner is transferred from one type of school to another, the teachers and head teachers of the schools concerned work together. It is possible for learners to return to mainstream schools. In the majority of the L?nder, the education authority makes the decision on whether to transfer a learner, following a request from the special education institution or from the parents or legal guardians. 

Many special education institutions and mainstream schools have developed close educational co-operation. Co-operative or inclusive forms of evaluation benefit both lessons and the general life of the school. Also, this trend expands the opportunities for changing between school types and educational courses, increases the proportion of joint lessons and encourages the transfer of learners from special education institutions to mainstream schools.

The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) guarantees the rights of parents (Art. 6, Paragraph 2).

The concept of family-centredness in early childhood intervention includes regular meetings between professionals and families – parents are involved in the discussions and the implementation of the individual plan for the intervention. 

Offers to promote the active involvement of parents in day-care are being extended and concepts developed to intensify the collaboration between school, parents and youth welfare services.

Each Land has implemented its own constitutions and school laws which regulate the collective involvement of parents at school and extracurricular level to varying degrees and in a variety of ways. In general, however, parental involvement within the school takes place in the class (class parents’ meetings, class councils) and in the school as a whole (school parents’ councils, parent representatives). This is followed in individual states by the regional level and the state level (state parents’ council). At federal level, state parents’ councils have joined together to form the Federal Parents’ Council (KMK).

The elected school parent council exercises the right of co-determination of parents at the school. For the duration of two years, a chairperson, a deputy and, if necessary, further members of the Executive Board are elected from among the parents. 

The school parent council must approve, among other things, decisions on the school programme, principles for homework and class work, or principles for the establishment and scope of voluntary education and care services.

According to the individual development plan, all parents must be involved in the planning process, the level of their child’s learning and development goals, problems that arise, school and extra-curricular support measures and support options. (VOSB § 5 and 6) 

The parents must be involved in and informed about the decision-making process, the eligible supporting offers and their objectives and possible effects on future schooling.

The National Centre of Early Aid (Nationales Zentrum für Frühe Hilfen) aims for the early detection of children at risk and strengthens co-operation between different social services focused on the early years. This helps children at risk and supports families in difficult socio-economic situations. It carries out research projects and designs new social networks.

The law aims to reach all children and families in need. Establishing regional interdisciplinary early childhood intervention (ECI) centres helps to avoid inequalities between rural and urban areas. Co-ordination/networking between different services is an important principle in ECI. Families have many opportunities to access information about ECI for their children (doctors, nurses, hospitals, kindergarten, etc.). Pre-natal support/guidance for families is offered by paediatricians and nurses.

The financing of education from the public purse is based on the following arrangements:

• Most educational institutions are maintained by public authorities. They receive most of their funds from public budgets. 
• Certain groups undergoing training receive financial assistance from the state to provide them with the money they need to live and study. 
• The public financing arrangements for the education system are the result of decision-making processes in the political and administrative system. The various forms of public spending on education are apportioned between Federation, L?nder and local authorities, according to education policy and objective requirements.

The basic framework for financing and funding is the yearly education budget of the Federation, the L?nder and the local authorities in Germany. Details of the methods of financing education – for example, teaching aids, learner transport – differ from Land to Land.

The agencies responsible for financing are government, districts (rural districts and municipalities with the status of a district) and local authorities. Decisions on the funding of education are taken at all levels, but the L?nder and the local authorities provide over 90% of the funds.

The L?nder finance the staff costs of teachers (salary, etc.). Teachers are employees of the L?nder, except in private schools. As a rule, the local authorities – specifically, the maintaining bodies (Schultr?ger) – finance non-teaching staff (without the qualification of a teacher), such as social workers, nurses, ‘inclusion helpers’ and support staff. Local authorities are responsible for funding the material costs, the buildings and the non-teaching staff payroll.

Each Land has its own arrangements regarding transport to and from school. In general, the districts, municipalities with the status of a district (L?nder) and, in some cases, the individual local authorities are responsible for ensuring adequate provision for transporting learners to and from school. Maintaining bodies (usually the local authority) fund school transport. In most cases, the Land in question grants subsidies.

The maintaining bodies of private schools receive some financial support from the L?nder, in various forms. All the L?nder guarantee standard financial support to schools entitled to such assistance; this includes contributions to the standard staff and running costs.

The funding mechanism for special needs and inclusive education is the same as for mainstream education, with additional measures and resources that take into account developments and changes towards more inclusive schooling in the different L?nder.

The school-maintaining bodies and/or the Social and Welfare Office share responsibility for funding over and above normal education funding, for additional needs (technical aids, transport, school attendants, architectural modifications for better access, etc.).

Within the measures for the inclusion of people with disabilities in Book 9 of the Social Code (Neuntes Buch Sozialgesetzbuch – Rehabilitation und Teilhabe von Menschen mit Behinderungen), learners with special educational needs receive financial assistance to help obtain an adequate school education, particularly during compulsory schooling and attendance at mainstream secondary education.

In some cases, there is mixed funding between Social Codes 8 (Children and Adults Welfare, §35A) and 12. There are also regional differences in decision-making concerning funding in the L?nder. The allocation of the conditions and funds and decisions about the type of support for specific learners are handled differently in the L?nder. In some L?nder, co?ordinating support committees (F?rderausschuss) consult and make a proposal. This proposal is the basis for the school administration’s decision, taking into account the school laws and the recommendations of each Land.

Early years education is not part of the public school system and kindergarten attendance is generally not free of charge. Institutions providing pre-primary education are funded by public and non-public bodies (local authorities, church, etc.). As a rule, organising bodies from both the voluntary sector and public child and youth welfare services receive financial support from the L?nder for kindergartens’ material and staffing costs. In addition, parental contributions are levied to help cover costs; this depends on parents’ financial circumstances.

The Federal Training Assistance Act (Bundesausbildungsf?rderungsgesetz) allows financial support from the state for learners who have no other means of maintenance and of financing their training (mainly from their parents’ income). The support is for learners in general and vocational secondary schools from grade 10 upwards. It comes in the form of a grant. Financial support is also available from the Office of Employment.

Book 9 of the Social Code introduced the personal budget on 1 July 2001. It allows recipients of benefits from rehabilitation funds to choose a personal budget in place of participation-oriented services or benefits in kind. Claimants cover the costs of the assistance they need from their budget. People with disabilities are given their personal budgets and are thus responsible for ‘buying’ the assistance they need. This broadens their scope for self-determination, making them more independent and responsible for meeting their own needs; they are purchasers, customers or employers. Best placed to assess their own needs, they can determine the type and structure of the support they receive, from whom they receive it and when.

The national education reports are a major tool for educational monitoring in Germany. They provide concise information about the current situation in the German education system. The reports are addressed to different target groups in educational policy, administration and practice in science and training, and to the public. The reports are designed based on an educational concept with three goals: individual self-direction, social participation and equal opportunities, and human resources.

In June 2015, the KMK revised its comprehensive strategy on educational monitoring.

The comprehensive strategy should not only describe developments in the education system but also create applicable knowledge. From the empirical data, the right conclusions should be drawn and put into action. 

The comprehensive strategy provides for the following methods and instruments:

• Monitoring and implementation of educational standards for the primary sector, lower-secondary level and the Allgemeine Hochschulreife
• Participation in international school performance studies (e.g. Pisa, PIRLS)
• Methods to ensure quality at school level
• The joint report on education of the Federation and L?nder.

The German Institute for Pedagogical Research (DIPF) is a state-funded institute responsible for the national report on education. It uses data to provide an overview of concepts, methods, questions and research results of the economics of education with regard to human capital research, internal efficiency and financing of education. It outlines the investment character of education, methods and results of return estimates, and the contribution of the economics of education to investigating the conditional factors of school performance and to the normative foundation of financial decisions in education.

The implementation of the nationwide comparison work in the German L?nder is part of the overall strategy adopted by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs for Education Monitoring in 2006.

Comparative work is written work in the form of tests, which examine nationwide competencies that learners have reached in literacy and maths. Nationwide in this context means that with VERA (National test for evaluation of language and maths skills), the learning level in the third and eighth grades of all general education schools and classes in Germany is compulsory.

By providing advice and assistance, recommending changes in schools and reporting to higher-ranking education authorities, the school supervisory authorities and institutes for school development contribute to the evaluation and further development of the school system. 

In almost all L?nder, schools are evaluated by external quality or evaluation agencies and inspection procedures. In the L?nder where there are legal provisions for external evaluation, responsibility lies with the school supervisory authorities, as a rule. In several L?nder, responsibility lies with the institutes for school development. 

In June 2004, the KMK set up the Institute for Educational Quality Improvement (Institut zur Qualit?tsentwicklung im Bildungswesen – IQB) at the Humboldt University in Berlin. Since then, the IQB has been entrusted with supervising the operationalisation of the educational standards, co-ordinating the development of corresponding standard-oriented tasks, and reviewing their achievement (See, for example, the 2024 report).

Within the school system, the KMK, in the Konstanzer Beschluss of October 1997, took up quality assurance processes that had already been introduced in several L?nder in the school sector and declared these a central issue for its work. Since then, the L?nder have developed evaluation instruments in the narrower sense which may be employed depending on the objective.

Early childhood education

Unlike the school sector, in pre-primary education, responsibility for the quality of a day-care centre for children lies with the maintaining body for that centre, which undertakes Fachaufsicht (academic supervision of teaching and education activity) and Dienstaufsicht (supervision of educational staff and head teachers) for its employees.

The maintaining bodies of day-care centres for children are obliged to explain how quality assurance and development are guaranteed in their approach. A number of methods are used in practice. At present, a method of quality monitoring that is binding for the whole Land only exists in Berlin. This stipulates an annual internal evaluation, as well as external evaluations every five years by certified agencies.

The youth welfare offices (Jugend?mter) have the task of supporting the private-sector maintaining bodies (as well as regularly self-employed child-minders) through appropriate measures in exercising their promotional mission.

Primary and secondary education

School supervisory authorities exercise Fachaufsicht (academic supervision), Rechtsaufsicht (legal supervision) and Dienstaufsicht (staff supervision) within the school system. Special educational support and academic evaluation is provided in school pilot projects carried out by the school supervisory authorities and the institutes for school development (Landesinstitute für Schulentwicklung) of the L?nder. Accompanying research examines the effectiveness of the reform measures and the framework that should be created if they are to be successfully implemented. The introduction of new curricula is often preceded by a test phase. In some L?nder, for example, teachers are surveyed to establish whether new guidelines have proved successful or require amendment. 

The social index combines statistical data to capture the social burden of schools and kindergartens. It helps to justify different resource allocations, so that disadvantages arising from the diversity of the population in a city or region can be compensated.

Data on learners with special educational needs (SEN) without an official decision in mainstream classes cannot be reported separately. No specific data is available on the time learners with SEN spend in a particular placement.

European Agency Statistics on Inclusive Education data tables

Land legislation regulates teacher training for all types of schools. The Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs of the L?nder are responsible for teacher training and regulate it through study and examination regulations. The state examination authorities or boards of the L?nder conduct the first and second Staatsprüfung (state examination) and Bachelor’s and Master’s degree examinations. A representative of the highest Land education authority for the school system is involved in the accreditation procedure; any accreditation of individual study courses requires this representative’s approval.

A resolution passed by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the L?nder (KMK) in the Federal Republic of Germany on 12 March 2015 and a resolution passed by the German Rectors’ Conference on 18 March 2015 led to a joint recommendation: ‘Educating teachers to embrace diversity’ (Lehrerbildung für eine Schule der Vielfalt). It states:

‘All teachers should be educated and continuously trained in a way that will allow them to acquire fundamental transferable competences in general teaching and in special needs education. This should also enable them to develop a professional approach to dealing with diversity in schools, particularly in the areas of educational diagnostics and special programmes to foster and support their learners’.

Initial teacher education

Teacher training is basically divided into two stages: a higher education course and practical pedagogical training. Teacher training courses are offered at universities, colleges of education and colleges of art and music. Practical pedagogical training in the form of preparatory service takes place in schools. All schools are involved in the preparatory service.

The basic entry requirement for teacher training courses is the Hochschulreife (higher education entrance qualification). This is achieved, as a rule, after attending school for 13 years and passing the Abitur (secondary school leaving certificate) examination.

The Erste Staatsprüfung (first state examination) is traditionally the leaving qualification for degree courses. Many L?nder have also introduced the consecutive structure of study with Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in teacher training. Study courses which provide Bachelor’s and Master’s structures in teacher training are accepted in all L?nder. The degrees are recognised if they meet the following requirements:

• Integrative study at universities or equivalent higher education institutions of at least two subject areas and of the educational sciences at the Bachelor level and at the Master level (the L?nder are free to specify exceptions in the subject areas of art and music)
• Practical training in schools as early as during the Bachelor’s course of study
• No extension of existing standard periods (without practical sections)
• Differentiation of the curricula and diplomas by teaching position.

Regardless of how the study is organised, the study courses have been modularised and provided with a credit point system. A pass in the first state examination is required for admission to the preparatory service.

Training for primary school teachers takes 3.5 years at university. For lower-secondary teachers, university training lasts 3.5–4.5 years. For specialist teachers and upper-secondary school teachers, training takes 4.5 years at university, with a further 1.5–2 years of practical training in school settings.

The various careers for which teachers are trained correspond to the levels and types of school in the L?nder. In view of the resulting large number of different designations for teaching careers, the following six types of teaching careers can be distinguished for reasons of clarity:

• Type 1: Teaching careers at the Grundschule or primary level 
• Type 2: General teaching careers at primary level and all or individual lower-secondary level school types 
• Type 3: Teaching careers at all or individual lower-secondary level school types 
• Type 4: Teaching careers for general education subjects at upper-secondary level or for the Gymnasium 
• Type 5: Teaching careers in vocational subjects at upper-secondary level or in vocational schools 
• Type 6: Teaching careers in special education.

Preparatory service

For all teaching careers, the Vorbereitungsdienst (preparatory service) is the second stage of teacher training, following higher education. Depending on the Land and the type of teaching career, it varies in length from 18 to 24 months and places emphasis on different areas. It involves lesson planning, guided and independent teaching in schools and studies in educational theory and subject-related didactics at seminars. These reappraise and consolidate experience gained through practical training.

Specialist training

Special education teaching courses in universities and equivalent higher education institutions are structured to meet the requirements of special needs education for learners in all school types. They also foster teachers’ professional abilities in both specialist and educational terms. Qualification as a specialist teacher can be obtained either by:

• passing the (second) state examination after obtaining a related higher education qualification;
• passing the first state examination and undertaking an additional course of study after qualifying for a different type of teaching career. 

In the L?nder, the two forms of training exist side by side or as alternatives. The course of study covers the following:

• Educational sciences and practical training in schools, including in subject areas relating to special education. To this end, particular importance is attached to educational and didactic basic qualifications in the areas dealing with diversity and inclusion, and fundamental support diagnostics. 
• Subject-related studies and didactics in at least one teaching area or area of learning.
• Study of special education; this should amount to around 120 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits. 
• A paper demonstrating the ability for independent scientific work.

In-service training

Most L?nder have laid down the goals of in-service training (IST) in their teacher training or educational legislation. Directives regulate other details about organisations which provide IST, and about applications, admissions and release from teaching duties for attendance at courses. Some L?nder have also formulated the fundamental aims and tasks of IST for teachers in directives or publications and not in legal provisions. Teachers have a duty to undergo IST by law or ordinance in all L?nder. Employers (usually the Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs) must ensure that suitable training programmes are provided. 

As with initial teacher education, the Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs in each Land are responsible for IST. They are the highest school supervisory authority and usually the employer of teachers with civil servant status.

State-run IST for teachers in Germany is organised at central, regional and local levels across the L?nder, with institutions subordinate to the Ministries of Education. IST can take place within schools, through guided private study, or via external providers such as churches and universities. Co-ordination occurs between central and regional organisers, and schools often arrange their own IST, sometimes with support from supervisory authorities. The main objectives of IST are to maintain and develop teachers’ professional skills, ensuring they can meet their career requirements and their school’s educational mission. IST covers a wide range of topics, from educational theory and didactics, to subject-specific and special education issues. It is delivered in various formats, such as courses, study groups and conferences.

Inclusive education

In some L?nder, it is compulsory for student teachers to do a course in inclusion. 

The Federal Government continues to work towards making inclusive learning a matter of course in Germany, even though ‘education’ is mainly the responsibility of the L?nder. Based on the agreement in the Joint Science Conference (GWK) in 2013, the Federal Government and the L?nder work together to improve the structure and content of the entire process of teacher education. This particularly applies to teacher education for inclusion up to the entry phase and continuing education. Funding is aimed in particular at the further development of teacher education for diversity and inclusion, as well as the permeability and openness of all educational pathways. (Nationaler Aktionsplan 2.0 der Bundesregierung zur UN-Behindertenrechtskonvention (UN-BRK), p. 51).

Continuous professional development (CPD)

For CPD, the Gemischte Kommission Lehrerbildung (Joint Commission for Teacher Training) has formulated the following principles:

• Institutionalised in-service teacher training is regarded as only one part of general and continuous ‘learning on the job’. Measures should encourage further learning on the job individually or within a group of colleagues as a natural element of professional practice. 
• The intensification of in-service training should not lead to the cancellation of more lessons. It can therefore be demanded of teaching staff to participate in in-service training courses when they have no teaching commitments. 
• In addition, it is particularly important to overcome the selective and individual character of in-service teacher training in order to influence the level of classroom activity more broadly. 
• As far as voluntary or obligatory participation in in-service training is concerned, it is of central significance to perceive participation in measures for in-service training not as an individual decision, but as a contribution to the development of the individual school and part of the development of teaching staff within the individual school. (Eurydice, National Education Systems, Germany, Continuing Professional Development for Teachers Working in Early Childhood and School Education).

Strategies to ensure a continuum of diverse professional learning opportunities for inclusive education – for pre-service, beginning and experienced teachers, as well as teacher educators and support teachers – across all levels where teachers work are regulated by L?nder law.

Pedagogic staff in the German early childhood sector do not have the training and status of teachers. The pedagogic staff in the early childhood sector consists mainly of Erzieher/Erzieherinnen (state-recognised youth or child-care workers). 

In December 2011, the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK) developed a competence-based qualification profile for all fields of work of pedagogic staff in early childhood education and care in training in a Fachschule. The qualification profile defines the requirement level for the profession and describes the professional competences a qualified person must have.

For early childhood education, several Federal initiatives have been taken to promote and enhance qualification and CPD for day-care/early childhood education staff, such as:

• the Qualification Initiative for Germany (Federal Government, 2008) for the continuing training of 80,000 state-recognised youth or child-care workers and day-care personnel;
• amendment of the Upgrading Training Assistance Act (AFBG) (2009) to promote upgrading training as Erzieher(in) nationwide; amendment of the AFBG (2016); 
• further training for early childhood education staff launched by the Ministry of Education and Research, in conjunction with the Robert Bosch Foundation and the German Youth Institute (Deutsches Jugendinstitut); the Action Programme Day-Care for Children (Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth – BMFSFJ), replaced in 2016 by the Child Day-Care federal programme, which promotes the in-service continuing qualification and permanent employment contracts of day-care staff. 

The path to inclusive early childhood education requires a change in the facilities (accessibility, including design; multi-professional teams) and the framework (laws, funding, equipment). Professionals must also further develop their professional attitude and pedagogical actions. Together with experts, the Early Childhood Education Initiative (Weiterbildungsinitiative Frühp?dagogische Fachkr?fte – WiFF) has defined which competences day-care professionals need in relation to inclusive education and how further education can develop these competences. The competence profiles developed are the basis for the design of competence-oriented offers for educational specialists. In addition, WiFF expertise on the topic of inclusion offers scientific analyses of current issues.

The profile of professionals working in the different forms of special settings include, for example, assessment skills, discipline-specific and cross-discipline components, and aspects of joint education of learners with and without SEN.

The head teacher, while being subject to the legal and administrative regulations of the school supervisory authority, is also authorised to issue instructions to the other members of the teaching staff and the non-teaching personnel within the framework of their duties relating to Dienstaufsicht (staff supervision) and Fachaufsicht (academic supervision).

Policies that address initial training, professional development opportunities and/or support for school leaders include:

• initial training and qualifications for school leaders: Qualification programmes for future school leaders in all L?nder
• Leadership development in schools and in education administration (Hesse)
• Concept for the qualification of school leaders and for teachers who aspire to the position of school principal (Berlin).

School leaders:

• have a voice in changes and developments in education policy beyond their school;
• have a voice in changes and developments in education policy and organisation within their school (e.g.?class size);
• set strategic direction and secure the commitment of all stakeholders (learners, parents, local community);
• appoint teachers (within the L?nder framework);
• adapt curriculum content, as well as teaching and learning, to local needs (within the L?nder framework);
• manage the school budget and allocate resources (within the L?nder framework);
• are held accountable for school outcomes (within the L?nder framework).

Each German Land has regulations specifying the formal qualifications required of early childhood education (ECE) directors. In some states, these qualifications also depend on the size of the ECE centre, measured by the number of children enrolled; sometimes new directors are required to have several years of relevant experience. Responses to a questionnaire about state-wide regulations governing working hours for ECE directors revealed a much more diverse picture. Only eight states specify how many hours per week the job entails. Moreover, states differ in the parameters used to determine how much time ECE directors devote to their duties.

Assessment is always based on syllabus requirements and the knowledge, abilities and skills acquired in a particular class or learning group. Assessment is carried out by the teacher in charge of lessons, who is educationally responsible for their decision. Each learner’s performance or development is set out in a twice-yearly report, in the middle and at the end of the school year. The evaluation of a learner’s performance is a pedagogical process, but also an administrative act based on legal and administrative regulations. 

The responsibility for the (assessment) procedure lies with the school supervisory authorities: either the authorities themselves have competence for SEN and sufficient experience in the field of educational support for people with disabilities, or they consult experts in the field of special educational support. 

Assessment for special education is based on multi-disciplinary reports. Parents can apply for assessment.

Identification of needs/referral for services 

Special educational needs are to be determined in relation to the tasks, the requirements and the support measures the respective school can provide. Furthermore, a determination of the learner’s special educational needs must take into account their environment, including the school, as well as their personal abilities, interests and expectations for the future. In some cases, formal assessment procedures accompany enrolments and transitions to different types of schools. 

The procedure for determining special educational needs may be applied for by the learner’s parents or legal guardians, by the learner, by the school or, if applicable, by other competent services. It must take into account the competences of the persons who participate or are to participate in the measures of support and instruction in a suitable manner.

In its recommendation ‘Inclusive education of children and young people with disabilities in schools’ of 20 October 2011, the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs laid the foundation for the highest possible level of equal participation of people with disabilities in education. The recommendation sets out the framework conditions for increasingly inclusive educational practice in general and vocational schools. Based on a changed understanding of disability and the principles of participation and accessibility, it emphasises the responsibility of mainstream schools for all children and young people with and without disabilities.

The diagnosis of SEN must be a precise definition of individual special needs. It must guide the decision about the process of education and the place of support. To ensure appropriate support measures, a qualitative and a quantitative profile of the learner is required. Consequently, information from the following areas is important:

• Development of learning and behavioural strategies 
• Perception and the process of perception 
• Social relationships 
• Communication and interaction 
• Individual and educational circumstances in life 
• The school environment and possibilities for change 
• The vocational environment and the necessary supporting factors. 

In general, the criteria for identifying SEN are similar for early years education and the transition period. Given the different levels of responsibilities, medical and psychological assessment may play a supplementary role. 

Over 80% of learners with SEN are enrolled in mainstream classes (inklusive Beschulung). An assessment team (e.g. classroom teacher, specialist teacher, health service) examines the learner’s special educational needs. The assessment leads to various forms of support provided by specialist teachers from regional counselling and support centres and classroom teachers, whether or not learners get an official statement of SEN. The allocation (and amount) of special teaching hours and financial support varies among the L?nder.

Children or young people are presumed to have SEN if their opportunities for education, development and learning are limited to such an extent that they cannot be sufficiently promoted within the scope of instruction at mainstream schools without receiving additional special educational assistance. In these cases, therapeutic and social aid provided by other external institutions may also be required.

Developing forms of learning in primary school contribute towards a new understanding of what is conducive to learning and of assessing learners’ performance. The focus has shifted to encouraging each individual learner to achieve all that they are capable of – guided by the learning requirements for the respective school grade. To do this, each learner’s individual development and performance must be constantly monitored, together with their working and social behaviour. These factors must then be comprehensively assessed. This is also valid for learners with SEN.

In L?nder with corresponding laws, the education of learners with SEN is increasingly accepted as a common task for all types of schools. This means a changing attitude towards learners with disabilities and their education. Furthermore, it particularly means a changing view of educational assessment and diagnosis. Special needs education is less institution-related; it centres upon individual, personal and ecological aspects of learning and the living environment. Education systems must be competent in arranging special educational provision – in special schools, as well as in mainstream schools.

The curricula for schools explicitly grant a lot of freedom to teachers. They encourage teachers to focus on learners’ individual development and special needs, rather than on formal teaching objectives.

Individual education plans for learners with SEN in Germany are reviewed annually or biannually. Standardised achievement tests are not implemented at the Land level. Assessment is on-going and comparable to mainstream schools, though for learners with intellectual or severe disabilities, it focuses on personal development. Parents can contest placement decisions. Multi-professional co-operation is common, involving teachers from various disciplines and external specialists, with integration assistance supported by teaching assistants. There are differences in funding structures across the L?nder.

Primary school curricula, including those for learners with SEN, are set by the L?nder Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs, ensuring consistency in competencies and objectives. Curricula are binding, yet allow teachers pedagogical flexibility. All teachers of a subject at a school collaborate on methods and assessment criteria. Educational standards and digital competencies are regularly reviewed and updated.

Special schools (F?rderschulen) largely follow the same curricula as mainstream schools, adapting methods and providing additional support to meet individual needs. Class sizes are smaller, and therapeutic interventions are integrated as required. For learners with SEN following mainstream curricula, measures such as extra time or technical aids are available to compensate for disadvantages (Nachteilsausgleich). Special schools for learning and intellectual disabilities operate under their own guidelines but are overseen by the relevant Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs.

All German L?nder have implemented the individual education plan as obligatory, as a contribution to ensure the quality of special needs education. No extra standards are defined, but the individual education plan is based on the individual abilities and skills of the learner with SEN.

Mainstream schools take preventive measures to counteract and reduce the impact of failures and other impairments to learning, language, and physical, social and emotional development. Preventive measures include:

• individualised and differentiated forms of work in the classroom, taking into account different learning speeds; 
• comprehensive counselling and information for parents and learners by teachers from the school; 
• support and support measures individually or in small groups by teachers from the school;
• co-operation with the counselling and support centres, other special educational support systems (according to § 50, Abs. 2 of the Education Act), school psychologists and counsellors at the school inspectorate; 
• collaboration with out-of-school funding institutions, such as pre-primary institutions (day nurseries), early childhood care, child and youth welfare services, and social assistance institutions. 

(Regulation on Teaching, Education and Special Needs Education of Pupils with impairments or disabilities – VOSB, May 2012, § 2).

Different professions have shared common goals in early childhood intervention (ECI) centres for many years. Interdisciplinary working is part of the training curricula. Every week, interdisciplinary team meetings take place discussing individual cases and ECI concepts and exchanging information on important ECI topics. In view of the importance of an interdisciplinary team approach for the quality of intervention, an adequate budget for team meetings is available.

The L?nder are responsible for changes to education acts regarding the implementation of inclusive education.

In nearly all L?nder, parents are able to choose the school they prefer, even for learners with severe disabilities. In most L?nder, inclusive settings start in grade 1 and grade 5 (primary school ends in grade 4, secondary school starts in grade 5).

The L?nder establish regional advice and support centres (in some L?nder, these are expected to be schools without learners in future) to support joint learning and working with special needs, support and the class teacher. The centres focus on assessment, preventive measures and compensating for disadvantage in each school.

There are also special schools or centres in the L?nder for learners who are deaf, blind, or have a visual impairment or an intellectual disability. Parents can choose these schools if more special support is required.

Learners with learning difficulties or any other disabilities have the right to:

• comprehensive assessment;
• an individual support plan;
• school education with supplementary special education support – perhaps with a time limit;
• co-operation and joint teaching in several or all lessons;
• treatments accompanied by therapy;
• therapy-oriented assessment and diagnosis.

All L?nder follow frameworks for assessment, class size, learner-teacher ratios and curricula.

Special educational support within special education resource centres (F?rderzentren)

In the Federal Republic of Germany, there are increasing numbers of special pedagogical support centres. Several L?nder are developing special schools into resource centres, giving them increased responsibility.

Special education centres (sonderp?dagogische F?rderzentren), as both regional or supra-regional institutions, aim to meet individual special needs or a range of different needs (e.g. physical and motor development, hearing and sight, etc.) and to guarantee special education in integrative, in-patient and co-operative forms. This education is based as near to the home as possible and provided by specialists. Within special education centres’ responsibility for preventive measures, support is provided even before the determination of SEN has taken place, sometimes as early as kindergarten.

A F?rderzentrum’s main task is to further develop professionalism and institutional organisation; specifically, reconsidering conceptions of the traditional special school to develop working co-operation between special and mainstream schools.

There are different concepts and aims of F?rderzentrum in different L?nder. As such, the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK) made proposals concerning preventive measures, joint education in mainstream schools, special schools and inter-school co-operation in its recommendation on Conditions and Locality of Special Educational Support.

In general, F?rderzentren develop from the traditional special schools. Some are responsible for a specific district or town (e.g. schools for learning, behaviour, speech and intellectual impairment). Others are responsible for the whole Land (e.g. schools for learners who are deaf or hearing-impaired, for learners who are blind or visually-impaired or for learners with physical disabilities or behavioural difficulties) or even for other L?nder.

Most L?nder agree that, in the long term, inclusion can only succeed if the F?rderzentren expand into more integrative co-operation. This could be the key for overcoming traditional relations between the special schools and mainstream schools.

Special measures for children and young people from migrant backgrounds

These learners generally attend the Grundschule or the general schools at secondary level. The range of methodical instruments for diagnosing and improving linguistic competence in the pre-primary sector is currently being further developed from an academic perspective. Important instruments include assessment of the stage of linguistic competence before school entrance and, if necessary, subsequent language promotion courses. These and other measures are designed to particularly support migrant learners and learners with deficits in language development, as well as to compensate for social disadvantages.

Various materials and counselling services are available to support schools in their systematic school development. These include quality development tools in schools at each stage of the quality cycle, and school counselling, which provides on-demand training to schools in their development process, including the learning environment.

Early childhood education (ECE) includes all institutions run by the non-public and public child and youth welfare services which cater for children until they start school. The implementation and financing of child and youth welfare legislation lies under the Basic Law of the L?nder. As a matter for local self-government, it is the responsibility of the local authorities. Under Federal Law, the legal framework for day-care for children provided under the youth welfare office is regulated by the Child and Youth Welfare Act (Kinder- und Jugendhilfegesetz). It covers the placement, briefing, training and payment of suitable day-care staff by the youth welfare office.

Since 1 August 2013, all children who have reached their first birthday have a legal right to a place in child-care and thereby unlimited access to education, nurturing and care in a nursery or day-care centre, as laid down in Book 8 of the Social Code, § 24, paragraphs 2 and 3. For some decades now, children in nurseries and day-care centres have been cared for in groups, regardless of whether or not they have a disability. Since 2005, Book 8 of the Social Code also establishes this in law.

ECE is provided by institutions catering for children until the age of 6, at which point they usually start school. Children of school age who have not yet attained a sufficient level of development to attend a school have a further option in some L?nder, namely Schulkinderg?rten, Vorklassen and Grundschulf?rderklassen. These institutions are assigned to either the early childhood or the primary sector, depending on the particular Land. Attendance is usually voluntary, although the authorities in most of the L?nder in question are entitled to make it compulsory.

The Ministry for Social Affairs is mainly responsibility for early years education. Under the Basic Law, it is the prerogative of the Federation to enact legislation on child and youth welfare within the framework of public welfare. This also applies to provision for children in kindergarten. The early intervention phase is not part of the public school system. Children with disabilities should, as far as possible, attend kindergarten and school together with non-disabled peers.

The L?nder developed more detailed and specific curriculum guidelines at the Land level (Bildungs- und Erziehungspl?ne) to intensify educational efforts for children in day-care centres and to ensure closer collaboration with primary education. The focus is on the acquisition of basic skills and on developing and reinforcing personal resources. To support these efforts, offers to promote the active involvement of parents in day-care are being extended and concepts developed to intensify the collaboration between school, parents and youth welfare services.

The assessment of the learning and development of children from age three follows guidelines for assessment and its use in pedagogical settings that are anchored in the education and development programmes of the L?nder and provide language development surveys, screenings and observation tools. They focus on developmental difficulties as well as competencies, encouragement and participation. 

A federal law (Sozialgesetzbuch, SGB IX, § 30) gives parents the right to ECE for their children at every level. The 16 L?nder organise ECE in different ways; each L?nder is responsible for its own ECE. 

Some L?nder have established pre-primary classes (Vorklassen) for five-year-old children who have not yet reached compulsory school age, but whose parents want assistance with their preparation for primary school. Attendance is voluntary. 

In special needs education, the following types of early years education are provided for children aged 3–6/7:

• Special kindergarten (Sonderkindergarten) and support kindergarten (F?rderkinderkarten), which care for and support children with disabilities only
• Integration kindergarten (Integrations-Kinderg?rten), which accepts children with and without disabilities.

The Federal Government and the L?nder together established nine principles to underpin common ECE quality standards and sound financing strategies (BMFSFJ/JFMK Communiqué Frühe Bildung weiterentwickeln und sichern, 2014). 

There is a joint framework in the L?nder for early education for children in day-care centres (Gemeinsamer Rahmen der L?nder für die frühe Bildung in Kindertageseinrichtungen, Beschluss der Jugendministerkonferenz und der Kultusministerkonferenz, 2004). This represents a general agreement about educational objectives in ECE.

Transition from early childhood education to primary school

There is a national guideline for the transition from home to early childhood education (ECE) and then from ECE to primary education entitled Gemeinsamer Rahmen der L?nder für die frühe Bildung in Kindertageseinrichtungen (Beschluss der Jugend- und Kultusministerkonferenz 2004). It describes the importance of transitions in education. The various educational plans of the L?nder (the Bildungs- und Erziehungspl?ne) are based on this national guideline. Depending on the particular Land, the educational plans can address children aged 0–6, 3–6 or 0–10. Support for children with disabilities and their families as the children transition to ECE or to school is offered by early childhood intervention services.

Transition from primary to secondary education 

The transition from primary (Grundschule) to lower-secondary education in Germany is governed by individual Land legislation, resulting in different approaches across regions. After primary school, which teaches mixed-ability classes, the secondary system is divided into three main educational pathways, each leading to distinct qualifications and managed by specific school types—Hauptschule, Realschule and Gymnasium. Some school types in the L?nder now offer multiple educational paths under one institution, with traditional Hauptschule and Realschule increasingly being phased out.

School career advice at the lower-secondary level covers both academic progression and professional qualifications, working closely with employment agencies. Vocational orientation is firmly embedded in all L?nder’s curricula, supported by resources such as career information centres (BIZ). Nationwide, educational guidance has become more important, supporting lifelong learning and equal opportunities, though the system remains heterogeneous due to varying institutions and legal frameworks. Since 2017, a national helpline for continuing education and training advice has been available.

All general education schools must provide mandatory vocational orientation, helping learners explore their potential and make informed career choices. The transitional system is being developed to offer tailored support, particularly for those with additional needs, with the long-term aim of focusing resources on those requiring extra help. Initiatives such as ‘Qualification and Connection – Education Chains’ have been established to streamline the transition from school to vocational training and higher education, involving co-operation between federal, regional and employment agencies.

Systematic skills profiling tools are widely used to provide individual support and are continually improved as part of vocational orientation measures. For learners with SEN, opportunities exist for recognised vocational training or, where not feasible, alternative vocational options designed for people with disabilities, supporting future integration into the workforce or independent living. Compulsory schooling extends to vocational or pre-vocational training, sometimes in specialist schools, with general education institutions preparing learners for career decisions through practical experience and collaboration with employment agencies.

Transition from school to work

In taking the decision on a learner’s school career, the school and the school supervisory authority co-operate with various agencies within and outside the school system. These include school psychological services, the public health office, the youth welfare office and education counselling agencies (for example, in the case of behavioural problems and domestic disputes). 

Particular importance is attached to integrating young people with disabilities into the workforce. Compulsory schooling does not end with a general education; rather, it includes vocational or pre-vocational training, sometimes in vocational Sonderschulen/F?rderschulen. Learners are prepared for making decisions on their choice of career at schools providing general education (in work studies and through visits to companies and work placements). Schools co-operate in this area with the career guidance departments of public employment agencies.

The aim is for people with disabilities to undergo an apprenticeship in a recognised occupation requiring formal training under the dual system, as far as their learning abilities allow. The school part of vocational training takes place in mainstream vocational schools (Berufsschulen) or in establishments for people with disabilities. The first stage of training is usually completed on a full-time basis as a basic vocational training year (Berufsgrundbildungsjahr). It can be preceded by a year of pre-vocational training (Berufsvorbereitungsjahr). Practical training takes place in companies, in inter-company training centres or in vocational training workshops for people with disabilities.

Alongside training within the dual system, training opportunities are available full-time in vocational schools. Learners with appropriate school-leaving qualifications are also offered the opportunity to continue their education (in the Fachoberschule or Fachschule). These institutions, which provide vocational training for people with disabilities, usually have a large catchment area and offer learner accommodation.

Special education in the vocational training sector and during the transition to a work environment

Young people with SEN should have the opportunity to receive formal vocational training in a recognised occupation (Anerkannter Ausbildungsberuf). Where this is not feasible, they should be permitted to take up an occupation that is specially designed for people with disabilities, with the aim of facilitating future permanent inclusion in a work environment. If this is not practicable either, the young person must be prepared for an occupation that has been adapted to their individual capabilities and skills and will enable them to lead an independent life or be prepared for employment in a workshop for people with disabilities.